How to prune raspberries

In order to correctly prune raspberries or blackberries or any of their many hybrids it is important to understand their basic growth habit as well as what you want to get from them. 

If you don’t understand their growth you will never get the full potential from them.  If you don’t know what you want from them you are wasting your time in pruning them at all.

Floricane blackberry will not fruit well if pruned like this

Established brambleberries grow from a crown, each year they put up new growth, this new growth is referred to as a primocane.  The primo part of this word means 'first' as they are first year growth.

After the growing season is over the primocane will sit over winter and not do a great deal that you can see, the following season this older growth is referred to as a floricane.  Floricanes were originally the only canes that flowered, but we have since bred some varieties that can flower on their primocanes.   Knowing about floricane and primocane is important so you can prune them properly.

Raspberries

Primocane vs Floricane
All brambleberries can be roughly divided into two artificially imposed and sometimes slightly overlapping groups.  One group can only flower and fruit on old growth, we call them floricane (or summer fruiting)  The other group can flower and fruit on new growth, we call them primocane (or autumn fruiting or everbearing).  It is important to which about them as the way each group can be pruned can be slightly different.

All brambleberries have the ability to flower and fruit on a floricane, or second year growth.   This is how most of the wild brambleberries work.  Most varieties of cultivated brambleberries will only ever flower and fruit on floricanes.  This means if you prune your plant to the ground each winter, or if animals get in and damage the canes, the plants will be nice and healthy but you will never get any fruit.

My golden raspberries are floricane flowering

Pruning Floricane Raspberries
Most people prune floricane varieties by leaving new growth and cutting out canes that have fruited the previous year. They also cut out the tip growth to encourage branching which means they produce more flowers.  It can be difficult to know which canes are which and there is extra time and care required to prune them.   Some people put tape or something around a cane that has fruited to show that it should be pruned out in winter, this takes time and effort.

Some canes die after fruiting, others will fruit again the following year.  Some people only prune in spring when the plants are breaking dormancy by removing any dead canes.  Again, it takes a little time and effort to achieve this.

One benefit of floricane varieties is that there are a lot of varieties to choose from, some do better in different climates and some fruit earlier or later than others.  Don’t ever buy an un-named variety, accept them if they are free, but don’t buy them.

Some brambleberries fruit on floricanes as mentioned above, but they also flower and fruit on first year growth, these varieties are referred to as primocane.  There are several ways to prune primocane varieties, there are benefits to each way.

Dormant raspberries, these are thornless primocane

How to prune Primocane raspberries to get one crop per year
The way that most people are encouraged to prune primocane varieties is each winter to cut it to the ground, this can be done quickly and easily if you run over the plant with the lawnmower.   The results are that the plant will throw up new growth in spring and fruit late summer/early autumn.

Many commercial producers prune in this way, it is fast, it is simple, and it is cost effective.  Different varieties fruit earlier or later so you can extend your harvest by planting a few named varieties.   Instead of the lawnmower you could carefully cut out each cane and use it as a cutting to grow more plants.   You have options depending on how much time and effort you have to spend on them.


How to prune Primocane raspberries for two crops per year
Another way to prune primocane varieties is to treat them as if they were floricanes.  Each year don’t cut them to the ground, instead leave that growth to flower and fruit next year.   Only remove dead canes, and possibly remove the tips of the floricanes.  Removing the tips encourages the plant to branch, thus producing more flowers and more fruit.  The plant still puts up new growth in spring, it still flowers and fruits on this new growth in autumn, but it will also produce an earlier crop on each of the floricanes.

Pruning like this gives you a second crop, an early crop from the floricanes and a late crop from the primocanes.  I have heard gardeners say that removing the floricanes helps the plant produce a larger crop on the primocanes, this seems logical enough, unfortunately every study I have seen on this tends to indicate this is not the case.

Brambleberries store a lot of energy in the roots, getting two crops each year does not appear to decrease the primocane crop in any way.

Thornless raspberries

Can you get a second crop from a floricane variety
I mentioned earlier that there is some overlap between floricane varieties and primocane varieties, this is where things get interesting.  I currently grow a thornless raspberry that is referred to as a floricane variety.  It usually only produces one large crop in summer on old growth.  Sometimes it will produce also produce a small autumn crop on each of the primocanes.  This second crop is not guaranteed, and is usually based on the weather, but it is still a primocane crop from a floricane variety.

Just like above, I prune them as if they are floricane, otherwise there is a chance that I will not get any crop from them that year.

There are a lot more floricane varieties than primocane varieties, this is simply because they are more prevalent in the wild and it took us a while to find good primocane varieties and breed from them.  I grow both primocane and floricane raspberry varieties, but I prune them both as if they were floricane and sometimes get two crops from both. 
 

Raspberry plants for sale in Australia
I grow several different varieties, some are thornless, some are primocane flowering, I grow black raspberries, I am one of the few people in Australia who sell a yellow fruiting golden raspberry.  I sometimes sell raspberry canes on my for sale page over winter when they are dormant.

Edible mushrooms for beginners

People often tell me how they tried to grow edible mushrooms from a kit and either failed or the yield was disappointingly low.  Other people tell me that growing edible mushrooms is extremely difficult and you have to do their expensive courses to be able to even have a chance to succeed.  Depending on the type of mushroom, and your climate, growing edible mushrooms can be pretty simple.

Some types of edible mushrooms are simple to grow, others are complex.  If you are a beginner I suggest starting with one of the simpler types.

I grew some oyster mushrooms on newspaper logs and some others just on damp cardboard.  I recorded the days from inoculation to harvest here and here.  It was remarkably simple and turned waste into food.  It was actually heaps of fun.  One thing I have noticed is that many beginners don't understand the words that people use when talking about mushrooms, so any advice they read tends not to make much sense.

Oyster Mushroom

Fungi are not plants and they are not animals, treating them like either may result in failure.  I have read many places say that fungi are plants without chlorophyll, this is incorrect.  Fungi are more similar to animals than they are to plants, even when growing them I think they tend to react more like animals.

When trying to understand the terms people use when describing fungi it is sometimes useful to compare them to plants or animals.  This is simply for comparison.  Like any analogy you reach a point where the comparison doesn't quite work.

In order to successfully cultivate edible mushrooms there are a few simple things and a few terms you need to understand.  Here are some useful terms that will enable you to understand what people are trying to explain. 

How to cold stratify seeds

Seeds from different species have different requirements before they will germinate, some are simple, others are rather complex.  All seeds need moisture to germinate.  All seeds have a preferred temperature range within which they will germinate, for some this temperature range is rather narrow while for others this range is very wide.

Some seeds require cold stratification in order to germinate, some will even need to be cold stratified several times.  Some need the seed coat damaged in some way, in nature this is usually achieved when it passes through the digestive system of an animal.  Some seeds need light in order to germinate, others need dark, and most don’t really care.  Some seeds, particularly tiny seeds such as orchids, require complex mycorrhizal interactions in order to germinate.  Some plants, particularly parasitic plants, need various chemical stimuli in order to germinate.

I have heard people say how they incorrectly cold stratify seeds and then have dreadful results, so thought I would write a post on how I cold stratify seeds.  This may not be the best method, but it has worked for me and has returned excellent results and allowed me to grow some things from seed that otherwise I wouldn't be able.

Strawberry and raspberry seeds germinate better after cold stratification

Frost in the vegetable garden

We have had some heavy frosts this winter.  I keep meaning to sneak out and take pictures.  Unfortunately I only remembered to take pictures on mornings when it wasn't overly cold.  The frost is still very pretty though.

Frost on the remains of spent plants

How to prevent thornless berries reverting to thorny

Thornlessness in brambleberries appears to be influenced by at least three different factors.  Scientists and plant breeders have understood these factors reasonably well for quite some time.  Each of them has different advantages and disadvantages.   But how do you keep a thornless berry thornless, and how do you prevent a brambleberry from reverting to being thorny?

First, let me tell you about my experience growing a "thornless youngberry", then let me explain the three different ways that brambleberries can be thornless, then I will explain what you do about each of the three types.

Thornless youngberry starting to ripen

Kombucha Continuous Brew

We have been keeping various ancient cultures for years.  We started with milk kefir, then went on to things such as water kefir and sour dough.  Some cultures we have kept going for years, others we have lost, and others we decided to stop doing for now due to various reasons.  One of the cultures we have at the moment that I really enjoy is kombucha.

Unfortunately the origin of kombucha has been lost to history.  Several romantic theories have been made about the origins of kombucha, none appear to be based on anything other than dramatic story telling, and these stories eventually merged to the one that is often told today.  The truth is that we know roughly where kombucha originated, we know vaguely when it started to become popular, but it doesn’t make one ounce of difference.  The drink tastes good, it is simple to make, and it reportedly has several health benefits.  Who really cares when or how it was discovered.

I thought I would write a blog post to share the down sides of continuous brew kombucha, and test some of the health claims.  I think you may be surprised by the results.

Continuous brew kombucha

How to store water chestnuts over winter

Chinese water chestnuts (Eleocharis dulcis) are very simple to grow at home and are very productive.  For some reason people used to tell me how difficult they were to grow, but the hardest part was finding any for sale in Australia that were not in a can!

To grow water chestnuts you don’t need acreage, you don’t need a stream or a pond, and you certainly don’t need to live in the tropics.  Chinese water chestnuts can easily be grown in most of Australia if you have access to soil, water, and sunlight. I grow them and I sell them so you can also grow them.  I grow water chestnuts in a cheap bucket.

Organic home grown water chestnuts

Being perennial vegetables, you can plant once and harvest forever.   In order to do this you need to store some water chestnut corms over winter while they are not actively growing. Let me explain how I over winter water chestnut corms.

Growing potatoes from True Potato Seed

Usually in Australia potatoes are grown from clones.  Sometimes these are pieces of existing potatoes or small potatoes.  Confusingly people sell 'seed potatoes' which are just small potatoes that are used for planting.  Every plant that is grown from 'seed potatoes' are genetically identical clones.

True Potato Seed is different, they are actual botanical seeds.  These are made in the same way that any plant makes seeds.  Every plant that arises from true potato seed is genetically different.  If you plant a dozen true potato seeds you will get a dozen different varieties of potato.  If you find one you like you can grow them vegetatively from there.  This is how plant breeders have come up with the different varieties of potatoes you can buy.

This year I got some True Potato Seed and grew some potatoes from those true botanical seeds.  Each and every plant that grows from true potato seed is genetically unique.

This year the ones I grew were diploid potatoes, which are different from the usual tetraploid potatoes.  They are more of a wild variety of potato and have not had polyploidy induced in them.  They also had a huge amount of genetic diversity which I love.  The seed grown potato plants looked nice and on some plants the flowers were stunningly beautiful.

Yield from one true potato seed grown plant, not huge the first year

Variegated maidenhair fern Adiantum raddianum 'Variegata' in Australia

I don't grow many ornamental plants but I love maidenhair ferns, I think that they are beautiful.  I have some on my desk at work to help my day be less dreary.

Years ago I heard of variegated maidenhair ferns, they sounded really nice.  I looked for them and no one seems to sell them.  For some reason there are very few pictures of variegated maidenhair ferns anywhere on the internet.  Considering how few images I found, I started to wonder if they actually existed, or if they were just photoshopped images.

I searched for a variegated maidenhair fern (Adiantum raddianum 'Variegata') for years.  For some reason very few people own variegated maidenhair ferns in Australia.  I found a few people who used to have one, and some places that used to sell them but no longer do, but getting one myself proved difficult.  I spoke to a few fern collectors, all of which had fond memories of once seeing this plant, but none who currently had one.  All of this convinced me that they did exist.  Then I eventually tracked one down, and I bought it.

Variegated maidenhair fern Adiantum raddianum 'Variegata'

My variegated maidenhair fern was tiny when I got it.  The little fern is growing nicely and I hope to be able to divide it and when it is larger I would love to grow some spores from it.  I will be curious to see if spore grown plants are all variegated, or if only a percentage are variegated, or if none of them will display variegation.  I have asked a few fern collectors and none of them seem to know.

I looked on the internet and there are only about half a dozen pictures of these elusive and enigmatic plants.  This makes it difficult to decide if you really want to get one.  If these things are so great why have so few people posted pictures of them on the internet?  The lack of pictures made it difficult to know if they really exist.  I am happy to say that variegated maidenhair ferns do exist, and they are very pretty.  I think the lack of pictures is due to their rarity.  I don't know why they are rare.

As you can see my fern displays diversity in its variegation.  Some fronds have more white than others.  Even on one frond it shows a lot of variation, some pinnules are entirely white, others are entirely green, and most will be green with splashes and stripes of green.

As so few people have ever seen these delightful ferns I took some pictures of my variegated maidenhair fern Adiantum raddianum 'Variegata' to show the world how pretty variegated maidenhair ferns are. 

Variegated maidenhair fern Adiantum raddianum 'Variegata'

Variegated maidenhair fronds Adiantum raddianum 'Variegata'

Variegated maidenhair fern frond - some pinnules are entirely white

Variegated maidenhair fern pinnules range from entirely white to almost entirely green.

Variegated maidenhair fern needs repotting

Variegated maidenhair fern in a larger pot

At this stage I only have the one small variegated maidenhair fern.  I really like it.  I can hardly wait for my plant to grow larger.  I hope in spring to be able to divide my fern so I have more of them, even if I can split it into two I would be happy.

Eventually I hope to be able to sell variegated maidenhair ferns through my for sale page, but that will not be for a while yet as my plant is too small to divide yet.

Strawberry x Raspberry hybrid plant photos

I have been messing around with plant breeding for as long as I can remember.  Some simple things, others more complicated.  I mentioned in an earlier post that I have recently crossed a strawberry with a raspberry.  I am very excited about this.

I wasn't planning on putting up any pictures until Spring once I know what will survive winter and the plants will be a lot larger and more worth looking at.  But I have had some people email and ask for photos, so I made this post to put up the first few pictures.

They aren't great pictures, and the surviving plants have grown a fair bit since the pictures were taken.  It takes me a while to get photos from the camera to the computer and I hadn't noticed how small they were when I took the last pictures, but they are the first pictures of strawberry raspberry hybrids that have been taken in one hundred years.

Horseradish seeds

I have been growing horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) on and off for many years now.  It is an interesting perennial vegetable that is worth growing.  The young leaves can be eaten but it is the pungent roots that are the real crop here.  Horseradish has been grown as food and medicine for centuries.

Horseradish Plant - flowering size plant

Being a brassica, horseradish can suffer from cabbage white butterfly.  Other than that it does not seem to suffer from many pests.  There are a few diseases that are said to bother horseradish, but I have never seen these diseases and am not sure if we have them in Australia.

Horseradish can flower.  Many people tell me that it can't, but mine does.  Mine doesn't flower each year though.

Guinea pigs communication

Guinea pigs are an amazing little animal.  We have had them on and off for many years.  Our first guinea pig died at about 8 years of age.  He used to belong to someone else but they couldn't look after him so we got him.  He was a great little pet and I was sad when he passed.

We currently have three large and fat females who used to be someone else pets but now live with us.  Hopefully they have long and happy lives with us.

Our guinea pigs are great at turning grass and weeds into rich fertiliser.  They are also fantastic at mowing grass in places that are difficult to get the mower or when I simply can't be bothered to mow.  They are also interesting to watch and nice to have around.

I move the guinea pig cage several times per day (morning and afternoon during the week, more often if I am home during the day and not too busy) and they eat out the lawn for me.  I also give them weeds that they like from the vegetable garden, and sometimes give them vegetable scraps and apple cores and things simply because they like to eat them. 

When the guinea pigs see me they oink loudly.  When guinea pigs want people to feed them they make this oinking noise (commonly referred to by cavy fanciers as 'wheeking').  Sometimes they have plenty of feed but they will see me and excitedly start to oink in the hope that I will give them something nicer to eat.  More often than not I do exactly what they want me to do.  It is hard to say no.

Two of our guinea pigs

Yesterday I learned something new about guinea pigs.  I love learning new things!  Yesterday someone told me that guinea pigs only use this oinking sound to communicate with people.  Apparently guinea pigs didn't used to make this sound until they were domesticated.  They said that no other animal have a specific sound purely to communicate with people like this.

I had never thought of that before, but it is true.  Our guinea pigs only make this oinking noise to call to people that they know who are likely to feed them something they like.  They don't ever make this noise to each other, they don't make this sound when they see my kids, they never make this sound when strangers such as the postman walk past them, or any other time when we are not in sight.  If they did I would hear them.

Sure your dog or cat may make a noise that is just for you, but all cats and dogs don't do it for their owners.  Guinea pigs are well known for all oinking for people anywhere in the world that they are kept.  This does not appear to be a learned behaviour, they all seem to do it.

It seems to be a behaviour that is written in their genes.  Considering that guinea pigs were domesticated about 7,000 years ago, and were raised exclusively in people's kitchens from that time until the 1500's, this makes sense.  When you consider that most of these animals would have been eaten and not lived very long that is a LOT of generations of guinea pigs that were raised in people's houses where people provided all of their food.  Having some way to tell people they want more food sounds like it would have been beneficial and would have been unknowingly selected for.

Guinea pigs are fascinating creatures, I love how they do things like this.  I wish I had more of them.

Does Azolla control mosquitoes?

Many people have told me that azolla can be used to control mosquito populations.  This is somewhat true, and has been proven experimentally to be possible under certain situations, but not for the reasons that people often claim.  Strangely enough, the way that azolla works is better than the way that people often say that it works.

Azolla starting to cover the water surface

Mosquito larvae live in water, but they must come to the surface to breathe air.   Most species of Australian mosquitoes have a specialised breathing snorkel or tube at their tail end, they spend much of the day at the surface with this breathing tube sticking out of the water.  Quite often people speak of azolla’s ability to control mosquitoes by it forming a dense mat which reduced the ability of the larvae to reach the surface to breathe, theoretically suffocating them.

I have read no evidence of azolla reducing the survival of immature mosquito larvae of any of the species of mosquitoes that are common in Australia. 

So how does azolla help to lower the numbers of mosquitoes? 

I have read a few experiments which have tested the suffocation theory using some of the species of mosquito that are common in Australia as well as one of the species of azolla that is common in Australia.  None of the studies I have read indicated that larvae respiration was hindered by azolla in any way.  All the studies I have read indicate that mosquito larvae either find a naturally occurring gap or simply push their breathing tube up between the azolla as if it wasn’t there.  Poking a snorkel up through azolla also protects them from being seen by predators!  Never listen to anyone who says that mosquitoes are suffocated by azolla, they have not done any research and are talking nonsense.

Having a few azolla plants floating here and there with mostly open water does nothing to control mosquitoes.

Now that the ways in which azolla does not control mosquitoes is out of the way let’s look at how azolla can and does help to control mosquito populations.

feeding duckweed and azolla to chickens

I have grown duckweed for many years.  Each time I move house I bring some with me.  I like the little plants floating happily on water.  I have heard how great it is as a poultry feed, but have never been able to get poultry to eat much of it.

I have tried floating duckweed on water in a container in their yard, they sometimes nibble a little but really don't eat much of it and not deliberately.  I have tried giving duck weed to them in a heap fresh, or dry, or fresh mixed with normal feed, or dry mixed with normal feed.  Usually they would peck around it and eat very little of it.

This was rather frustrating as everyone says how great duckweed is as a poultry feed.  Oh well, I keep growing it as I still like it.  Duckweed has other uses apart from poultry feed so this isn't a great loss.

This last summer I gave the chickens some azolla, and they ate it all quickly.  I gave it to them floating on water and they ate every last piece.  Every time I gave them more azolla they ate it all pretty fast.

Azolla in a container of water, it doubles each few days so I scoop it out to feed to chickens

Strawberries - Ever Bearing, Day Neutral, June Bearing

Strawberry plants are often described on the internet as ‘June bearing’, ‘everbearing’ or ‘day neutral’. Even though we usually don’t use these terms in Australia we are starting to see them more often and people sometimes ask me about them so I thought I would write a post explaining the differences.

Before I start, try to keep in mind that this distinction is not absolute, not all varieties fit neatly into any one category, some varieties switch categories depending on the growing conditions, many can send up an occasional flower throughout the growing season, also being in Australia means that internet descriptions such as ‘June bearing’ may be confusing as they will more likely crop in December.

Strawberries will not flower or fruit if the temperature is too high or too low. If your climate is too hot or dry or cold you may not actually be able to tell the difference between any of these three as the possible fruiting window may be small. If you live up in the tropics or down south will also change fruiting time drastically.

Now that is out of the way, let me explain the differences between June bearing, everbearing, and day neutral strawberries.

Various Strawberries