mulberry tree time from planting cuttings to fruiting

Have you ever wondered how long it takes for a white mulberry to go from a small cutting until it is large enough to fruit?  I have grown cuttings a few times so thought I would share my experiences and hope that it helps someone.

I have looked on the internet and found a nursery overseas that claims they sell 2 year old plants that should fruit in 2 - 3 years.  That seems overly long to me.  Judging how quickly I get things to fruit from cuttings or seed grown and how much longer they claim it takes for 2 year old plants to fruit I would have doubts over the quality of their plants and/or the accuracy of their claims.

Large mulberry cuttings can fruit that same year, but what about small cuttings?  Obviously it varies from plant to plant, some will fruit much faster or slower than others, and the climate will change things.

Here are some photos of a cutting that I took of a cutting from a white mulberry that is meant to be white fruiting (most white mulberries are dark fruited).  The cutting was around 10cm long and far thinner than a pencil.

My little cutting went from this tiny cutting just sprouting roots September 2017:

to this small ~60cm tall tree just before going dormant:

to this little tree emerging from dormancy in October 2018:

Unless something goes wrong I should find out in a month or two if it is white fruited or dark fruited. 

Mulberry breaking dormancy - note the catkin emerging

Almost every node that is producing leaves is also producing catkins, each of which should turn into mulberries.

It appears that this will be a productive tree once I plant it in the soil.  I am hoping that it will be white fruited, but even if it is dark fruited I think it will still be well worth growing.

 

I am waiting until the fruit ripens before planting this tree in a larger pot or in the soil.  I would hate for transplant stress to cause it to abort its fruit and have to wait another year.

I am assuming that some varieties of white mulberry take longer than this to fruit.  I assume that some varieties will be more productive and others less productive than this one.  Regardless, it appears that this is a productive and reasonably fast growing variety.  Going from a cutting to a fruiting tree in a year is pretty impressive.  I don't know of many fruit trees other than mulberry that can do this.

Skirret in Australia

Skirret (Sium Sisarum) is the ultimate perennial vegetable.  As far as I am concerned skirret is the perfect vegetable for organic gardeners, permaculture gardeners, people who are into increasing self-sufficiency, people who are increasing their food security, and people with fussy children.   That’s right, even fussy kids will eat skirret.

Skirret has a long history as a vegetable, it has been blessed with the highest recommendation and cursed with the lowest popularity of any of the root crops.  It grows wild across Asia, and has been well established across Europe.  Skirret may have made its first documented appearance in a 1322 list of seeds maintained by the gardener for the Archbishop of Canterbury, Lambeth Palace, which included a penny's worth of skirret in a 1321 to 1322 inventory.  We don't know how long it was used as a vegetable prior to this, it is believed that skirret grew along damp riversides and ditches and was easily harvested for free, so didn't need to be bought and sold.  It is likely that skirret was grown and eaten long before this but simply not recorded.

People keep telling me that there is no skirret in Australia, but I grow skirret, I sell skirret, and eat skirret.  I have given skirret to some people who now also sell it.  So skirret is slowly becoming less rare in Australia.  Hopefully one day I will see skirret for sale at a farmer's market.

I adore skirret, I have grown it for a number of years now, have written a few posts on it to try and show other people how to grow it.  Skirret is the most delicious roast vegetable ever.  I have never eaten anything that even comes close to how great skirret tastes.  I like the taste normally, but frosts make it far sweeter.  I want to encourage more people to grow this remarkable vegetable.

Skirret next to 30 cm ruler for scale

Skirret next to 30 cm ruler for scale

Growing string of pearls succulent in water

I love string of pearls succulents (Senecio rowleyanus).  There is something special about their almost spherical leaves with little windows, and the crazy way they grow out of their pot and drape over the side that I love.

I started two tiny cuttings a while ago and have expanded my stock significantly since then by planting more cuttings.  They are a delightful and surprisingly simple plant to grow.

Unfortunately my two year old shares a similar fascination with these plants too.  He likes to rip off the longest strands and hide them around my yard or in boxes.  While I would prefer he didn't do this, and would prefer to have longer strands growing, whenever he pulls parts off I use them as cuttings to create more plants.

Small string of pearls plant

Normally when I take cuttings of string of pearls plant I remove the lower few leaves (its leaves are the round pearl things), then I stick that lower part in soil, and that is all.  In a few weeks the cutting has roots and the top is actively growing.  Very simple.

So far, even using cuttings that have been ripped off by the baby and hidden in the yard for a few weeks, I have had 100% strike rate.

String of Pearls cutting ready for planting

Recently I heard of another method to grow string of pearls cuttings.  Instead of putting the cutting in soil, you put it in a glass of water.  I root plenty of other cuttings in water like this but not succulents.  Being a succulent, and having such great success simply planting cuttings in soil, I had not even thought of rooting them in water.

I was intrigued if the cutting would grow or if it would simply rot.  Curiosity got the better of me so when the baby pulled off a strand I gave it a go.  I think that it is fun learning new things.

The water method of rooting string of pearl cuttings is much the same as the soil method I currently use.

I take the cutting and remove the lower few pearls as normal.  Then, instead of planting in soil, you place the lower section in water.  Common sense tells you that only the lower part goes in water, the top section with leaves remains above the water level just like most other cuttings.  To be honest, I can't think of any cutting that you would totally submerge other than fully aquatic plants.

I have an egg cup on the kitchen window sill where I grow a few cuttings.  A jar would probably work better, but the egg cup takes up so little space.  So I put the end of the cutting in the egg cup, and the top is draped out of the water towards the window.  As the egg cup is so small it has to be topped up with water each night which ensures less algae growth and more oxygen is in the water.

Strangely enough all went well.  In a couple of wees roots started to form and the cutting was ready to be planted in soil.

String of pearls cutting actually grew roots in water!

I expected it to rot, but it grew roots pretty fast

Not only did roots form, the tip started to grow longer.  This indicates that the plant is alive.  Towards the end the cutting started to put down more roots in search of soil.

Growing longer and forming more roots

At this stage the cutting was ready to be planted in soil.  If you grow string of pearls plants in water then this is the time to plant them in soil.  Once again curiosity got the best of me.  I started to wonder how long the string of pearls cutting could survive in nothing but water.

String of pearls is a succulent, and succulents are adapted to growing in dry places, growing a succulent in water feels strange.  It was worth giving this a go simply to learn more about this fascinating plant.

String of pearls roots getting longer

String of pearls water roots

Surprisingly enough all has gone well so far.  The roots have gotten pretty long.  The plant is growing longer and seems reasonably healthy.

So far the only issue is lack of light as I am growing it in the kitchen where it is bright but there is little to no direct light.

Internodes are a bit long as the light levels are too low

I figure sooner or later my string or pearls cutting growing in a glass of water will start to rot.  When that happens I will cut off the rotting section and plant the rest in soil so it can root and grow normally.  Hopefully that works so I have not lost anything in trying this.  It is fascinating though.  I wonder how long it can actually survive in water like this.

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Update from April 2019: I started the string of pearls cutting from the pictures in water back in late August 2018.  It is now April and it is still going strong.  Who would have thought!  It is not as large as ones of the same age that I grew in soil but still looks healthy.  So far its only issue is not getting enough sunlight because I have had it growing on the kitchen window.

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Update March 2021: my string of pearls cutting in nothing but water died after two and a half years.  

It fell out of the water and I didn't put it back in for a few weeks.  The stem got bruised/broken from having something heavy placed on it, making the roots die.  I tried to put it back in water in hopes the roots would grow again, but they didn't, I think it had been out of water and crushed for too long.  Had I noticed earlier I think it would have survived,

I think this would have kept growing forever if the plant had more sunlight and it didn't fall out of the water.  

This cutting didn't rot, it never flowered but it kept growing longer and branching.  It lasted two and a half years in nothing but water!

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If you want to grow a string of pearls plant I sell string of pearls cuttings as well as small string of pearls plants through my for sale page.  At this stage I only have the regular green variety, I plan to have the large variety and the variegated string of pearls plant for sale day too.

Red Fleshed Huonville Crab Apples

When we lived on acreage we had many apple trees.  We had three mixed orchards, each orchard had some apples.  We had some old heritage apples, we had over 50 espaliered apples consisting of four newer apple varieties.  We also had a few other things such as medlar.

Now we live in town we have far fewer fruit trees.  One I particularly like is the Huonville Crab Apple.  It is believed to be the cross between a domestic apple and a crab apple.  It grows small edible apples and is pretty enough to belong in an ornamental flower garden!  The apples are red fleshed, which is very rare in Australia, but it has other traits that I also like.

The bark of the Huonville Crabapple is a lovely dark colour.

Huonville Crab the branches are a rich dark colour

Domestic apples the branches are often more green

During the growing season the Huonville Crab apple leaves are a beautiful purple colour.  Most types of apple leaves are varying shades of green.

Huonville crab apple leaves

Most apple leaves are green

Huonville Crabapple flowers are a dark pink.  They are incredibly beautiful.  Before they have opened they look like tiny roses.  Most domestic apples are a pretty light pink/white when they flower.  While I like the look of both, and am glad to be growing both, I prefer the look of the darker Huonville crab apple flowers.

Huonville crab apple flowers look like roses before they open

Huonville crab apple flowers before they opened

Huonville crab apple flowers are beautiful

Huonville crab apple flowers

Most other apple flowers are pink and white and lovely

Cripps Pink apple blossom almost ready to open

The flesh of Huonville crab apple is red.  I will try to remember to take some pictures of them this year and put it up in another post.  Even the sap of the Huonville crab apple is purple.

I am quite taken by this tree.  The dark trunk, the purple leaves, and the stunning flowers look amazing together.  The dark red apples with red flesh are great, I think they would be better if the apples were just a little bit larger.

living mulch - do pumpkins shade the soil

Quite often I have read about the "three sisters" method of planting.  People state different reasons for each of the three plants being planted together.  More often that not people state that pumpkins are used as they shade the soil, and provide a living mulch.  But is this really the case?

First, let me say that the three sisters method works well when done properly.

If you grow field corn, dry beans, and pumpkins together they do crop well together.  The beans sequester atmospheric nitrogen that the corn appreciates, the corn provides a stalk for beans to grow up but more importantly the corn exude sugars into the soil for the pumpkins, the pumpkins are meant to shade the soil, but they don't.  Or at least they don't shade the soil when it is hot.

If you have ever stopped to look at pumpkin leaves on a cool day they are large and cast an impressive shadow.  If you look at them during any kind of heat you may notice that they go flacid to conserve water.  When they are flacid they do not cast much of a shadow and do little to cool the soil.

When we lived in Central West NSW we had about 9 weeks each year where the day time temperature exceeded 40 C.  It was incredibly hot and dry for a very long time.  Pumpkins were all but worthless for providing shade in that kind of heat.  The leaves would go flacid at about 7:30 each morning and stay that way until they were watered in the evening.  It kept them alive, I got a crop out of them, but didn't help the corn.

I know that people will argue with me on this, so I took some pictures to demonstrate my point.  I took these pictures last summer on a day that reached 30 C.  It was a still day with no wind.  If pumpkins don't cast shade on a day like that they are not going to do a great deal in any real heat or if it is windy.

Pumpkin leaves in any heat wilt badly, but do they still cast much shadow?

Pumpkins from this angle you can't tell if they shade the soil

Pumpkin leaves, look how little shadow they cast at 30 C

I have had people argue this point with me and say that in the three sisters method that there is plenty of shade on the soil.  This is partly true.  In the three sisters method there is often plenty of shade on the soil, but it is not due to the pumpkin leaves.  Look at the picture above, pumpkin leaves don't cast much shade at all when the days warm up.  They cast even less shade when it is hot.

I think the shade that may be due to the corn.  So I took some pictures of the soil under my corn plants.  It was the same day as I took the pumpkin pictures, it only reached 30 C and there was no wind.  On hotter days the shade under corn plants is much the same as their leaves curl but don't wither away like a pumpkin.

Corn plants (on the left) cast more share than pumpkins (ignore the potatoes on the right)

The three sisters method works well when done properly, but what about when you want to shade soil under other tall crops such as yacon?  If you want a plant to shade the soil what should you use?  As you can see in the pictures above pumpkins are not very good at shading the soil unless the day is cool and still.

In the past I have attempted to use things such as clover.  This is not great, it survives cool weather and appears to die in the heat.  No matter how much water I gave it the clover always died in Central West NSW over summer.  I need something that stands up to the heat of summer, grows densely to shade the soil, but does not get too tall.

I have successfully used purslane to shade the soil under corn and a few other crops.  This worked perfectly, it survived the heat, if watered it produced a thick deep mat, it did not appear to compete with the corn, it self seeded and dies at the end of summer.  It is edible by people as well as other animals.  Purslane apparently contains highest amounts of omega 3 fatty acid of any plant we know of and is very healthy for poultry.

Some people view purslane as a weed, and it self seeded so I more encouraged it rather than controlled where and when it would grow, so I looked for other options too.

I trialed strawberries as a ground cover to shade the soil.  I grew an alpine strawberry that produces a lot of runners.  This produced a thick ground cover that had the benefit of producing delicious edible strawberries.  The strawberries are a short plant, have a relatively shallow root system, and do not appear to compete very much with taller things.

Yacon with strawberry ground cover so dense the soil is completely shaded

Strawberries shade the soil even on hot days - note the strawberries ripening in the background

They also protect the roots from frosts a little

Growing strawberries as a ground cover worked well during the growing season.  Strawberries need a bit of water to survive, but so did the yacon so it wasn't a problem.

When it came time to dig the yacon it was less than ideal as I also had to dig the strawberries.  The strawberries are pretty hardy and survived being dug pretty well so it wasn't too much of an issue.

I do wonder if I could grow something like a creeping thyme as a ground cover.  I may try a few different things and see how they work.

Hybrid fruit: real and imaginary

There are some amazing hybrid fruits around, things such as plumcots (which are a cross of a plum and an apricot) or boysenberries (which are the cross of raspberry and blackberry) or jostaberry (which are a cross between a black current and a gooseberry) are rather well known.  Others are virtually unknown.

Most of the more well known hybrids are crosses of different species, others are crosses of different genus.

Sometimes people get confused by what does and does not cross, so sometimes there is confusion.  Other times people deliberately sell fake seeds and plants with made up histories.  I thought I would write a post showing some of the real hybrids as well as some fake hybrids.


Pear x Apple hybrids - Real hybrids and Imaginary hybrids

There seems to be a little confusion over intergeneric apple (Malus) x pear (Pyrus) hybrids.  There are a lot of common names that confuse people.  Apple x pear hybrids can and do exist, but they have not become marketable yet.  Perhaps one day they will.

Let me show you ome that are not hybrids and why they confuse people, then I will show the real apple x pear hybrids.

'Papple'
The Papple is a hybrid of an European pear Pyrus communis and an Asian pear Pyrus pyrifolia and was originally named “T109” by breeders.  It is a hybrid of two species of pear.  The papple is NOT a cross between a pear and an apple, it has no apple in its genetic makeup whatsoever.  The papple is a pear that has the vague appearance of an apple, so it was named 'papple'.

Papple is a cross between European pear and Asian pear, it is NOT a hybrid pear and apple

Seeds in seedless watermelon - how is this possible

Have you ever eaten a seedless watermelon and found 2 or 3 black viable looking seeds?  Have you ever wondered how this is possible?  I have.

I have a good understanding of how seedless watermelons are made.  Theoreticaly it is impossible for black viable seeds to form in a seedless watermelon, yet on occasion they do form and they are viable.  It irritated me not knowing how this is possible. 

I searched the internet to find out how it was possible for a seedless watermelon to produce black viable seeds.  Strangely enough I couldn't find any explanation.

I spoke to/emailed some plant nerds and a certain professor at a university who asked I didn't name him (and I won't - wink) and I now understand how seedless watermelons can produce black viable seeds.

If you would like to read a simplified version of how seedless watermelons can produce viable seeds then keep reading.

If you are a plant geneticist and would like to elaborate on any points that I have simplified too much, or anywhere that I have strayed a bit too far and confused things, then feel free to leave a comment!

Watermelon grown from a viable seed from a seedless watermelon

Guinea pigs to mow the lawn

I broke my spine a few years ago.  I can walk which is lovely and I appreciate the time I have had being able to walk.  I have known people to break their spine in a similar way to me and never walk again, so I count myself lucky.

My back is degrading, every day seems to be worse than the previous one.  Each time I mow the lawn I wonder how many more times I will be able to mow.  My kids are getting older and more capable, but none of them are able to safely use a lawn mower.  I am struggling to even use the ride on mower lately.  I got rid of some lawn and replaced it with vegetable beds, but I still have some lawn for the kids to play on.

This got me thinking, why mow the lawn at all?  Why not get something that eats grass to mow the lawn for me?

We are not on acreage any more so my options are limited.  Large livestock such as sheep or goats or cattle or alpacas are no good here as they would eat the fruit trees, they would eat the vegetables, and due to the size of my block eventually we would be left with nothing but dust and poo.

Sheep are great on acreage, not great for a backyard

Aji Amarillo

I like chillies.  I enjoy their capsaicin, but far more than that I love their taste.  There are literally thousands of different types of chillies and each of them tastes different.  Some are sweet, some bitter, some fruity, some citrusy, some savoury, some earthy, some dirty and I dislike them.

Unfortunately the markets only provide few varieties of chillies, so few that most of the foodies I know have no concept of the many thousands of varieties that are out there.  This means if I want to taste something remarkable I must grow it myself.

My vegetable garden is feeling small as there are so many amazing vegetables that I can't buy and have to grow myself.  I grow everything organically and I save seeds with my kids.

This year I grew very few chillies.  One that I grew this year was Aji Amarillo (Capsicum baccatum) which is a lovely chilli from Peru. 

Aji Amarillo e translates to "yellow chilli", aji means chilli, amarillo means yellow.  When dried it is known as Aji Mirasol (which I am told means "looking at the sun" but I don't really understand how).

Aji amarillo - many were longer than this

Raised Vegetable Beds

What is more useful, this odd shaped piece of grass on a gentle slope which fits a guinea pig house nicely and takes time to mow every now and again?  Or a jungle of many different organically grown fresh herbs and vegetables?

The odd shaped piece of lawn before was not very useful

Raised vegetable beds, they look great plus they produce organic food

Let's take a look from another angle.  Here is the odd shaped piece of lawn again.  It was wasted space that took time and effort to mow.  The lawn clippings were useful in the compost and the weeds that grew in there attract beneficial insects, but other than that it had little use.  I took a photo before vegetable beds, then I stood in much the same spot and took a photo after the raised vegetable beds were installed.

A piece of wasted land

That same small patch of land overflowing with fresh organic vegetables

Let's have one last look, I stood in much the same spot to take both pictures for comparison purposes.

Guinea pig house protecting vegetable seedlings from birds on the odd shaped plot of lawn

The same plot with lawn killed, guinea pig house moved, and raised vegetable beds installed

Don't make any mistake here, it took some work filling the beds with soil, planting seeds and seedlings, watering etc.  All of that work is more than worth it.  The raised vegetable beds became very productive very fast.  Being raised beds means I don't have to bend as much, which is easier on my back.

If you read my blog you will see that I grow many rare vegetables as well as dabble in vegetable breeding.  I can still do this because we converted a wasted lawn into a reasonable sized vegetable garden.  These raised vegetable beds are great, they mean far less bending, less digging, less weeds and less work.

Planting seeds and seedlings

Look how neat and tidy they all look

Even at this early stage they were productive

It didn't take long before that worthless piece of lawn became a jungle of delicious organic vegetables, amazing berries, fresh herbs, and a few pretty flowers for the kids.

Many people have never eaten fresh food.  Some foods are too soft to transport, so they are picked not yet ripe and can never taste their best.  The sugars in sweet corn convert to starch noticeably within 15 minutes of being picked.  If you want fresh food you must grow it yourself.  Food from the markets is not fresh and it will never be as good as food you can grow on an otherwise useless piece of lawn.

All of this fresh organic food had zero food miles, it was watered from the water tank which collected water from the roof, it was fertilised with compost made from lawn clippings and chicken manure from my property.  Does it get any better than this, yes it does!

To make things better my kids know where food comes from as they help me plant seeds and tend the vegetables, they help harvest and eat the food, and they help me save seeds (and dabble in a little plant breeding) each year.  Most adults I know have no idea how to save seeds. 

My kids have grown and eaten many fruit and vegetables that most people have never heard of.  They have eaten delicate and tender foods that could never survive transport.  All of this is possible because we destroyed our lawn and made it into something better.

Many vegetables are growing here

Raised vegetable beds - far more productive than lawn

String of pearls - real and fake

I love string of pearls plants (Senecio rowleyanus), I think they look amazing.  I grow a few and find them delightful.  There are a few different types.

Unfortunately, ebay thieves sell fake seeds of string of pearl plants that do not exist.  They sell thousands of dollars worth of fake seeds and keep getting away with it.

First, let me show you what types of string of pearls plants exist, then let me show you some of the fake seeds that thieves are selling through ebay.  Hopefully I can prevent at least one person from being stolen from.

All of the following pictures were found on actual online ads.  They are not my pictures. 


String of pearls plants that DO exist
Healthy string of pearls comes in green.  There is a variegated form (green and white), there is a giant form (also green), and that is all.  String of pearls ONLY come in green.

As string of pearls can be grown from seed, there are likely some forms that are slightly more pointy, and others that are slightly more round, but they are all green (or green and white).

If string of pearls is about to die or has some nutrient deficiency it may turn black, not a glossy nice black, more of a sickly about to die kind of black.  Mine get a slight purple tinge over winter when struggling through the cold, but they still look decidedly green.

 String of pearls giant form next to normal one - not my photo

How to prune raspberries

In order to correctly prune raspberries or blackberries or any of their many hybrids it is important to understand their basic growth habit as well as what you want to get from them. 

If you don’t understand their growth you will never get the full potential from them.  If you don’t know what you want from them you are wasting your time in pruning them at all.

Floricane blackberry will not fruit well if pruned like this

Established brambleberries grow from a crown, each year they put up new growth, this new growth is referred to as a primocane.  The primo part of this word means 'first' as they are first year growth.

After the growing season is over the primocane will sit over winter and not do a great deal that you can see, the following season this older growth is referred to as a floricane.  Floricanes were originally the only canes that flowered, but we have since bred some varieties that can flower on their primocanes.   Knowing about floricane and primocane is important so you can prune them properly.

Raspberries

Primocane vs Floricane
All brambleberries can be roughly divided into two artificially imposed and sometimes slightly overlapping groups.  One group can only flower and fruit on old growth, we call them floricane (or summer fruiting)  The other group can flower and fruit on new growth, we call them primocane (or autumn fruiting or everbearing).  It is important to which about them as the way each group can be pruned can be slightly different.

All brambleberries have the ability to flower and fruit on a floricane, or second year growth.   This is how most of the wild brambleberries work.  Most varieties of cultivated brambleberries will only ever flower and fruit on floricanes.  This means if you prune your plant to the ground each winter, or if animals get in and damage the canes, the plants will be nice and healthy but you will never get any fruit.

My golden raspberries are floricane flowering

Pruning Floricane Raspberries
Most people prune floricane varieties by leaving new growth and cutting out canes that have fruited the previous year. They also cut out the tip growth to encourage branching which means they produce more flowers.  It can be difficult to know which canes are which and there is extra time and care required to prune them.   Some people put tape or something around a cane that has fruited to show that it should be pruned out in winter, this takes time and effort.

Some canes die after fruiting, others will fruit again the following year.  Some people only prune in spring when the plants are breaking dormancy by removing any dead canes.  Again, it takes a little time and effort to achieve this.

One benefit of floricane varieties is that there are a lot of varieties to choose from, some do better in different climates and some fruit earlier or later than others.  Don’t ever buy an un-named variety, accept them if they are free, but don’t buy them.

Some brambleberries fruit on floricanes as mentioned above, but they also flower and fruit on first year growth, these varieties are referred to as primocane.  There are several ways to prune primocane varieties, there are benefits to each way.

Dormant raspberries, these are thornless primocane

How to prune Primocane raspberries to get one crop per year
The way that most people are encouraged to prune primocane varieties is each winter to cut it to the ground, this can be done quickly and easily if you run over the plant with the lawnmower.   The results are that the plant will throw up new growth in spring and fruit late summer/early autumn.

Many commercial producers prune in this way, it is fast, it is simple, and it is cost effective.  Different varieties fruit earlier or later so you can extend your harvest by planting a few named varieties.   Instead of the lawnmower you could carefully cut out each cane and use it as a cutting to grow more plants.   You have options depending on how much time and effort you have to spend on them.


How to prune Primocane raspberries for two crops per year
Another way to prune primocane varieties is to treat them as if they were floricanes.  Each year don’t cut them to the ground, instead leave that growth to flower and fruit next year.   Only remove dead canes, and possibly remove the tips of the floricanes.  Removing the tips encourages the plant to branch, thus producing more flowers and more fruit.  The plant still puts up new growth in spring, it still flowers and fruits on this new growth in autumn, but it will also produce an earlier crop on each of the floricanes.

Pruning like this gives you a second crop, an early crop from the floricanes and a late crop from the primocanes.  I have heard gardeners say that removing the floricanes helps the plant produce a larger crop on the primocanes, this seems logical enough, unfortunately every study I have seen on this tends to indicate this is not the case.

Brambleberries store a lot of energy in the roots, getting two crops each year does not appear to decrease the primocane crop in any way.

Thornless raspberries

Can you get a second crop from a floricane variety
I mentioned earlier that there is some overlap between floricane varieties and primocane varieties, this is where things get interesting.  I currently grow a thornless raspberry that is referred to as a floricane variety.  It usually only produces one large crop in summer on old growth.  Sometimes it will produce also produce a small autumn crop on each of the primocanes.  This second crop is not guaranteed, and is usually based on the weather, but it is still a primocane crop from a floricane variety.

Just like above, I prune them as if they are floricane, otherwise there is a chance that I will not get any crop from them that year.

There are a lot more floricane varieties than primocane varieties, this is simply because they are more prevalent in the wild and it took us a while to find good primocane varieties and breed from them.  I grow both primocane and floricane raspberry varieties, but I prune them both as if they were floricane and sometimes get two crops from both. 
 

Raspberry plants for sale in Australia
I grow several different varieties, some are thornless, some are primocane flowering, I grow black raspberries, I am one of the few people in Australia who sell a yellow fruiting golden raspberry.  I sometimes sell raspberry canes on my for sale page over winter when they are dormant.

Edible mushrooms for beginners

People often tell me how they tried to grow edible mushrooms from a kit and either failed or the yield was disappointingly low.  Other people tell me that growing edible mushrooms is extremely difficult and you have to do their expensive courses to be able to even have a chance to succeed.  Depending on the type of mushroom, and your climate, growing edible mushrooms can be pretty simple.

Some types of edible mushrooms are simple to grow, others are complex.  If you are a beginner I suggest starting with one of the simpler types.

I grew some oyster mushrooms on newspaper logs and some others just on damp cardboard.  I recorded the days from inoculation to harvest here and here.  It was remarkably simple and turned waste into food.  It was actually heaps of fun.  One thing I have noticed is that many beginners don't understand the words that people use when talking about mushrooms, so any advice they read tends not to make much sense.

Oyster Mushroom

Fungi are not plants and they are not animals, treating them like either may result in failure.  I have read many places say that fungi are plants without chlorophyll, this is incorrect.  Fungi are more similar to animals than they are to plants, even when growing them I think they tend to react more like animals.

When trying to understand the terms people use when describing fungi it is sometimes useful to compare them to plants or animals.  This is simply for comparison.  Like any analogy you reach a point where the comparison doesn't quite work.

In order to successfully cultivate edible mushrooms there are a few simple things and a few terms you need to understand.  Here are some useful terms that will enable you to understand what people are trying to explain.